DARQ

DARQ technologies magnified Information Technologies (IT) evolution in relation to the Convergence Time (CT). These cutting-edge IT advancements have engendered an acceleration in the convergence of multifarious technological paradigms. The seamless integration of DARQ technologies with the IT ecosystem has instigated a paradigm shift in industries and societies, yielding transformative metamorphoses in the societal fabric. This complementary amalgamation has accelerated the development and implementation of innovative solutions, endowing society with augmented efficiency, balanced automation, and decision-making capabilities across diverse domains and has the potential to shape a better future by addressing global challenges, empowering individuals, and driving economic growth. As described by Klaus Schwab in his book “The Fourth Industrial Revolution” (4 IR), by adopting a human-centered approach and fostering collaboration, we can harness technology to create positive change and improve the state of the world^[26].

Information Technologies Convergence

Web 1.0

Web 1.0 refers to the early stage of the World Wide Web, characterized by static web pages and limited interactivity. It was the first iteration of the web that emerged in the early 1990s and lasted until around the early 2000s.

Mainframe

The Turing Test is a test proposed by the mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950 as a way to measure a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behavior that is indistinguishable from that of a human. It involves a human evaluator engaging in a conversation with both a machine and another human without knowing which is which. If the evaluator cannot consistently determine which is the machine based on their responses, the machine is said to have passed the Turing Test.

A mainframe computer is a powerful and large computer used by large organizations for critical tasks. It has more processing power than other computers but is not as big as a supercomputer. Mainframes originated in the 1960s and are often used as servers. They played a crucial role in supporting the infrastructure and hosting the websites of that era^[27].

System/360 (1964) and System/390 (1990) are computer systems developed by IBM. System/360 was a family of compatible computers that introduced advancements in compatibility, scalability, and software compatibility. It marked a significant milestone in computing history. System/390, an evolution of System/360, retained compatibility while introducing new features and enhancements. It focused on improving performance, reliability, and scalability for enterprise computing applications. Both systems played crucial roles in mainframe computing, influencing large-scale data processing and business computing.

Client-Server & PC

The client-server model is a distributed application structure where tasks are divided between servers and clients, allowing communication over a network, with examples including email, network printing, and the World Wide Web^[28]. It dates back at least to 1964, where it run a job and responded with the output for OS/360 as a remote job entry architecture.

In June 1972, SAP was founded as a private partnership. They developed a real-time system for payroll and accounting, storing data locally instead of on punch cards. This became their flagship product, later expanding to serve other clients.

A personal computer (PC) is a user-friendly, affordable microcomputer designed for individual use, which has had a significant impact on people’s lives globally during the Digital Revolution^[29]. The Altair 8800, introduced in 1974 by MITS and powered by the Intel 8080 Microprocessor, is widely regarded as the first true personal computer and a catalyst for the microcomputer revolution^[30]. A few years later, in 1977, three companies successfully deployed mass-marketed personal computers later known as the “1977 trinity”: Commodore PET, Apple II, and TRS-80 which marked the arrival of mass-market, pre-assembled computers, expanding computer usage to a broader audience and shifting the focus towards software applications rather than processor hardware development.

The PC market experienced continuous growth and expansion until 2010, reaching its peak in shipments in 2012. However, on January 27, 2010, Apple introduced the iPad, a groundbreaking device that revolutionized web browsing, email communication, multimedia consumption, gaming, e-books, and more. This marked a significant shift in the way people engage with technology.

Internet

The Internet has its beginning as early as the mainframes. It was developed in 1960s by Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) with the purpose to develop time-sharing of computers^[31]. In 1969, Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) connected first computer nodes, starting what we know now as the Internet^[32]. Gradually, the ARPANET transformed into a decentralized network, linking various remote centers and military bases across the United States^[33]. Soon after, in 1972, came public data networks, communication networks accessible to the general public, enabling the transmission of data between different locations or users. It is operated by a telecommunications company and allows for the exchange of information over long distances.

In the mid-1980s, the expansion of the internet presented significant economic opportunities for commercial involvement and service delivery to the public. MCI Mail and Compuserve connected to the internet in 1989, providing email and public access services to hundreds of thousands of users. Shortly after, on January 1, 1990, PSInet launched an additional internet backbone for commercial use, contributing to the development of the commercial internet in the years to come^[34].

Amazon.com, Inc., founded on July 5, 1994, by Jeff Bezos, is a prominent American multinational technology company known for its involvement in e-commerce, cloud computing, online advertising, digital streaming, and artificial intelligence^[35].

Web 2.0

Web 2.0, also referred to as the participative or social web, encompasses websites that prioritize user-generated content, user-friendly interfaces, participatory culture, and interoperability, allowing compatibility with other products, systems, and devices for end users^[36]. Coined in 1999 and popularized at the first Web 2.0 Conference in 2004, the term “Web 2.0” represents a general shift towards interactive websites that surpassed the static nature of the original Web, rather than indicating a formal change in the World Wide Web itself.

Salesforce, Inc. is an American company founded in 1999 that provides cloud computing services. Salesforce played a significant role in the Web 2.0 era by leveraging cloud computing and providing innovative software-as-a-service (SaaS) solutions. As one of the pioneers in delivering business applications through the internet, Salesforce helped shape the concept of cloud-based platforms and collaborative software tools. By offering a user-friendly and interactive interface, Salesforce empowered businesses to harness the potential of Web 2.0 technologies for customer relationship management (CRM) and sales automation.

Big Data

Big Data refers to large and complex datasets that cannot be easily handled by traditional data-processing software, often characterized by a high number of entries and attributes. It encompasses a vast amount of information that surpasses our comprehension when analyzed in smaller quantities^[37].

In its 2013 predictions, IDC projected 4.4 zettabytes of data to be created or replicated that year, marking a 50% growth compared to 2012. IDC also noted that only a small fraction of the digital universe was being explored for analytic value^[38].

SMAC: Social, Mobile, Analytics, Cloud

In March 2006, Amazon Web Services (AWS) introduced Amazon S3 cloud storage, followed by the launch of EC2 in August 2006. At that time, Andy Jassy, the founder and vice president of AWS, emphasized how Amazon S3 alleviated concerns for developers regarding data storage, security, availability, server maintenance costs, and storage capacity.

The original iPhone, also known as iPhone 2G or iPhone 1, was the first smartphone developed and marketed by Apple Inc. Released in the United States on June 29, 2007, the iPhone revolutionized the mobile phone industry by introducing a touch interface, minimal hardware buttons, and continuous internet access. It became Apple’s most successful product, paving the way for the App Store and transforming the smartphone industry^[39].

The public cloud started gaining significant traction and becoming mainstream around the early to mid-2010s with the increasing adoption and maturity of cloud computing technologies in recent years. As organizations recognized the benefits of scalability, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility offered by public cloud services, they started migrating their applications and data to public cloud platforms. The widespread availability of reliable and secure cloud infrastructure, along with advancements in cloud management and security tools, played a significant role in driving the mainstream adoption of public cloud services. Today, public cloud has become a popular choice for businesses of all sizes, enabling them to leverage the power of cloud computing for their operations and innovation.

Web 3.0

IoT and Smart Machines

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to physical objects equipped with sensors, processing capabilities, and software that can connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the Internet or other communication networks. The concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) emerged in the early 1980s, with the first connected appliance being a vending machine at Carnegie Mellon University. Mark Weiser’s 1991 paper and conferences like UbiComp contributed to the development of the IoT vision. In 1994, Reza Raji described it as automating various devices. Companies like Microsoft proposed solutions, and Bill Joy discussed device-to-device communication in 1999.

A self-driving car, also called an autonomous car or robo-car, is a vehicle that can operate without human input. Self-driving cars are sophisticated smart machines that combine advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, computer vision, and sensor systems to navigate and operate on roads autonomously. These vehicles can perceive their surroundings, interpret and analyze the data, make informed decisions, and safely navigate through various traffic situations without the need for human intervention. With the ability to learn and adapt from their experiences, self-driving cars represent a remarkable fusion of cutting-edge technology and automotive engineering, aiming to revolutionize transportation by improving safety, efficiency, and convenience on the roads.

DLT: Distributed Ledger Technology Web 3.0

The Bitcoin whitepaper is a document titled “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System” written by an individual or group using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. It was published in 2008 and serves as the foundational blueprint for the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. The whitepaper outlines the key concepts and mechanisms behind Bitcoin, including its decentralized nature, the use of blockchain technology for maintaining a public ledger, and the process of mining to secure the network and validate transactions. It introduces the concept of a digital currency that operates without the need for intermediaries such as banks and provides a solution for the double-spending problem. The Bitcoin whitepaper has had a significant impact on the development and adoption of cryptocurrencies worldwide.

AI: Artificial Intelligence

Deep Blue, an IBM supercomputer, made history in the field of artificial intelligence. It was the first computer to defeat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, in a match. The development began in 1985 at Carnegie Mellon University and later moved to IBM, undergoing name changes along the way. In 1996, Deep Blue lost to Kasparov but was upgraded and won a rematch in 1997. Its victory is a notable milestone in AI history and has been featured in various media.

XR: Extended Reality

In the late 1980s, Jaron Lanier, a prominent figure in the field, popularized the term “virtual reality.” During the 1990s, consumer headsets for virtual reality began to be commercially released, with predictions of affordable VR becoming available by 1994, as forecasted by Computer Gaming World in 1992.

Oculus Rift, developed by Oculus VR, revived the virtual reality industry by providing an affordable and high-quality VR experience. It was prototyped in 2011 and launched with the DK1 in 2013 after successful Kickstarted campaign. The Rift went through several models before the consumer release of the Rift CV1 in 2016. It was later replaced by the Oculus Rift S in 2019. The Oculus Rift software is compatible with its successor, the Oculus Quest.

The “metaverse” is a concept from science fiction that envisions a virtual world created through VR and AR technologies, serving as a universal and immersive iteration of the Internet. In everyday language, the metaverse refers to a network of 3D virtual worlds focused on social and economic connections. In 2019, Facebook introduced Facebook Horizon, a social virtual reality (VR) world,. and in August 2021, Facebook launched Horizon Workrooms, an open beta collaboration app designed for remote work. It provides virtual meeting rooms, whiteboards, and video call integration, accommodating up to 50 participants.

QT: Quantum Technology 2.0

D-Wave Quantum Systems Inc. is a Canadian company known for being the first to sell quantum computers that harness quantum effects. They have developed quantum computers with increasing numbers of qubits, with their latest system featuring 5,000 qubits. While their current computers specialize in quantum annealing, they have also announced plans to work on universal gate-based quantum computers in the future. In May 2011, D-Wave Systems unveiled the D-Wave One, the world’s first commercially available quantum computer. It operated on a 128-qubit chipset and utilized quantum annealing to solve optimization problems. Earlier prototypes, such as the 16-qubit Orion Quantum Computer, were demonstrated in 2007. D-Wave also showcased a 28-qubit quantum annealing processor fabricated at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory Microdevices Lab.

Quantum supremacy is when a quantum computer can solve a problem that even the best classical computers cannot solve within a reasonable timeframe. It demonstrates the superior computational power of quantum computers compared to classical computers. In December 2020, researchers from the University of Science and Technology of China achieved quantum supremacy using their photonic quantum computer Jiuzhang. They implemented gaussian boson sampling with 76 photons, generating results that would take a classical supercomputer 2.5 billion years to compute in just 200 seconds^[40].